Difference between revisions of "E1. Work-Energy Theorem: differential form"
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<u>Platform reference frame: </u> It is a non Galilean reference frame, and the transportation force on '''P''' has to be taken into account. | <u>Platform reference frame: </u> It is a non Galilean reference frame, and the transportation force on '''P''' has to be taken into account. | ||
Revision as of 12:16, 20 May 2025
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The Work-Energy Theorem plays a prominent role in physics, as it bridges all branches of science (electromagnetism, thermodynamics, etc.): all of them deal with energy.
There is a certain parallel between the Vector Theorems and the Work-Energy Theorem: they all allow us to understand the evolution of a magnitude that depends on the mechanical state of the system. In the case of the former, we are dealing with the instantaneous evolution of vector magnitudes (linear momentum, angular momentum), while the latter deals with the finite change (in a finite time interval) of a scalar magnitude (mechanical energy).
This unit presents the differential form of this theorem (the power balance). The integrated form (which is the Work-Energy Theorem itself) is presented in unit E2.
E1.1 Power balance in a system of particles
Let us consider a system of constant matter, and let’s apply Newton's second law to each particle (or each mass differential) of this system in a general reference frame R (which may be non-Galilean) (Figure E1.1):
[math]\displaystyle{ \F{\rightarrow \Ps} + \Fcal{}{\text{ar}\rightarrow\Ps} + \Fcal{}{\text{Cor}\rightarrow\Ps} =\ms_\Ps\acc{P}{R} }[/math]
[math]\displaystyle{ \F{\rightarrow \Ps} }[/math] is the resultant interaction force on P, and it comes from internal interactions (with particles of the same system) and external ones:
[math]\displaystyle{ \F{\rightarrow \Ps}=\F{\rightarrow \Ps}^\text{int}+\F{\rightarrow \Ps}^\text{ext} }[/math]
If both sides of the equation are multiplied by [math]\displaystyle{ \vel{P}{R} }[/math], all forces (interaction and inertia forces) orthogonal to [math]\displaystyle{ \vel{P}{R} }[/math] are filtered out. Specifically, since [math]\displaystyle{ \acc{P}{R}=\accs{P}{R} + \accn{P}{R} }[/math], where [math]\displaystyle{ \accn{P}{R} \perp \vel{P}{R} }[/math], and since the Coriolis force is always orthogonal to [math]\displaystyle{ \vel{P}{R} (\Fcal{}{\text{Cor}\rightarrow\Ps} = -2\ms_\Ps \velang{R}{Gal} \times \vel{P}{R}) }[/math]:
[math]\displaystyle{ \vel{P}{R} \cdot \left( \F{\rightarrow \Ps}^\text{int}+\F{\rightarrow \Ps}^\text{ext} + \Fcal{}{\text{ar}\rightarrow\Ps} \right) = \ms_\Ps\accs{P}{R} \cdot \vel{P}{R} = \frac{\ds}{\ds \ts} \left(\frac{1}{2}\ms_\Ps \vvec_\Rs^2(\Ps) \right) \equiv \frac{\ds\Ts_\Rs(\Ps)}{\ds\ts}=\dot{\Ts}_\Rs(\Ps) }[/math]
The scalar function [math]\displaystyle{ \Ts_\Rs(\Ps) }[/math] is the kinetic energy of the particle, and is a function of the mechanical state of P. The scalar product of a force and the velocity of its application point is the force power: [math]\displaystyle{ \vel{P}{R} \cdot \F{\rightarrow \Ps} \equiv \dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{\F{\rightarrow \Ps}} }[/math]. Both scalar quantities [math]\displaystyle{ (\Ts_\Rs(\Ps), \dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{\F{\rightarrow \Ps}}) }[/math] depend on the reference frame. For the same set of interaction forces acting on P, the reference frame determines which are filtered out and which are not.
The equation can be rewritten as [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{\text{ext}\rightarrow \Ps}+\dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{\text{int}\rightarrow \Ps}+\dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{\text{ar}\rightarrow \Ps} =\dot{\Ts}_\Rs(\Ps) }[/math], and constitutes the power balance for particle P in the R reference frame. Summing for all particles in the system:
[math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{\text{ext}}+\dot{\Ws}^{\text{int}}+\dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{\text{ar}} =\dot{\Ts}_\Rs^\text{syst} }[/math]
The calculation of kinetic energy is covered in unit E2. This unit focuses on the calculation of powers. section E1-2 shows that the power of internal interactions does not depend on the reference frame (which is why the subscript R does not appear in the [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ws}^{\text{int}} }[/math] term of the previous equation).
✏️ EXAMPLE E1-1.1: free particle
| A particle P, with mass m, is released from the ring of a Ferris wheel when it is at its highest point. We want to calculate the power, at this instant, of all forces acting on the particle from three different reference frames: the ground, the ring, and the Ferris wheel cabin. |
- Ground reference frame: Since this is a Galilean reference frame, all forces on P are interaction forces.
| [math]\displaystyle{ \hspace{0.5cm}\sum\dot{\Ws}_\Ts=\dot{\Ws}_\Ts^\text{weight}= \left(\leftarrow \Rs\Omega_0\right) \cdot \left(\downarrow \ms\gs\right)=0 }[/math] |
- Ring reference frame: It is a non-Galilean reference, and the transportation force on P must be taken into account.
| [math]\displaystyle{ \hspace{0.5cm} }[/math] AB:ground, REL:ring [math]\displaystyle{ \hspace{0.5cm}\vel{P}{REL}=\vel{P}{AB}-\vel{P}{ar}= \left(\leftarrow \Rs\Omega_0\right)-\left(\leftarrow \Rs\Omega_0\right)=\overline{0} }[/math] [math]\displaystyle{ \hspace{0.5cm} }[/math] Since the velocity is zero, the total power is zero. |
- Cabin reference frame: It is also a non-Galilean reference, and the transportation force on P must be taken into account.
| [math]\displaystyle{ \hspace{0.5cm} }[/math]AB:ground, REL:cabin
[math]\displaystyle{ \hspace{0.5cm}\vel{P}{REL}=\vel{P}{AB}-\vel{P}{ar}= \left(\leftarrow \Rs\Omega_0\right)-\left(\uparrow \Rs\Omega_0\right) }[/math] [math]\displaystyle{ \hspace{0.5cm}\dot{\Ws}_\text{cabin}^\text{weight}=\left[ \left(\leftarrow \Rs\Omega_0\right)+\left(\downarrow \Rs\Omega_0\right) \right] \cdot \left(\downarrow\ms\gs\right) =\ms\gs\Rs\Omega_0 }[/math] [math]\displaystyle{ \hspace{0.5cm}\dot{\Ws}_\text{cabin}^\text{ar}=\left[ \left(\leftarrow \Rs\Omega_0\right)+\left(\downarrow \Rs\Omega_0\right) \right] \cdot \left(\rightarrow\ms\Rs^2\Omega_0^2\right) =-\ms\gs\Rs^2 \Omega_0^3 }[/math] [math]\displaystyle{ \hspace{0.5cm}\sum\dot{\Ws}_\text{cabin}=\ms\Rs\Omega_0(\gs-\Rs\Omega_0^2) }[/math] |
✏️ EXAMPLE E1-1.2: pendulum
| A particle P of mass m hangs from an inextensible thread of length L attached to the ceiling. The assembly oscillates in a vertical plane fixed to the ground. We want to calculate the power of all the forces acting on the particle in two different reference frames: the ground and a platform rotating relative to the ground with a constant angular velocity [math]\displaystyle{ \Omega_0 }[/math].
Ground reference frame: Since it is a Galilean reference frame, P is only subjected to interaction forces.
[math]\displaystyle{ \hspace{8cm} }[/math] Platform reference frame: It is a non Galilean reference frame, and the transportation force on P has to be taken into account.
E1.2 Power of an action-reaction pairThe total power associated with internal interactions in a constant-mass system is not zero in principle (since the two forces of each action-reaction pair are applied to particles that may have different velocities relative to the reference frame in which the calculation is made), and it is independent of the reference frame in which it is evaluated. It only depends on the separation velocity of the two particles. The power balance for the system is therefore written as: [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ts}_\Rs^\text{syst}=\dot{\Ws}_\Rs^\text{ext} + \dot{\Ws}^\text{int} + \dot{\Ws}_\Rs^\text{ar} }[/math] . 💭 PROOF ➕
The difference [math]\displaystyle{ \biggl( \vel{Q}{R} \Bigr]_{\Ps\Qs}-\ \vel{P}{R} \Bigr]_{\Ps\Qs}\biggl) }[/math] is the separation velocity [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\rho} }[/math] between P and Q, and it does not dpend on the reference frame since it is the derivative of a scalar (the distance [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\rho} }[/math] between the two particles). For the previous drawing, [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\rho}\gt 0 }[/math]. Since this is an attractive interaction, [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ws}^\text{ac-reac} \lt 0 }[/math]. With a drawing, it is easy to see that:
There are two particular cases of interaction forces whose power always has the same sign:
[math]\displaystyle{ \hspace{1cm} \dot{\Ws}^\text{friction}=\dot{\Ws}^{\text{fric}\rightarrow\Ps}_\text{RTQ}+\dot{\Ws}^{\text{fric}\rightarrow\Qs}_\text{RTQ}=\overline{\Fs}^{\text{fric}\rightarrow\Ps} \cdot \vel{P}{RTQ} = - \abs{\overline{\Fs}^{\text{fric}\rightarrow\Ps}} \frac{\vel{P}{RTQ}}{\abs{\vel{P}{RTQ}}} \cdot \vel{P}{RTQ}\lt 0; }[/math]
[math]\displaystyle{ \hspace{1cm} \dot{\Ws}^\text{constraint}=\dot{\Ws}^{\text{constraint}\rightarrow\Ps}_{\mathrm{S}_\Ps}+\dot{\Ws}^{\text{constraint}\rightarrow\Qs}_{\mathrm{S}_\Ps}=\overline{\Fs}^{\text{constraint}\rightarrow\Ps} \cdot \overline{\mathbf{v}}_{\mathrm{S}_\Qs}(\Ps) = - 0; }[/math] ✏️ EXAMPLE E1-2.1: power of an action-reaction friction pair
At that momento, the [math]\displaystyle{ \mathbf{ICR}^\text{wheel}_\Es }[/math] is point [math]\displaystyle{ \Js_\text{wheel} }[/math] in contact with the belt. This point slides backwards with respect to the belt, therefore the friction force on the wheel is forwards: [math]\displaystyle{ \left.\begin{array}{l} \text { AB: ground } \\ \text { REL: belt } \end{array}\right\} \quad \bar{\vs}_{\text {REL }}\left(\Js_{\text {wheel }}\right)=\bar{\vs}_{\text{AB}}\left(\Js_{\text {wheel }}\right)-\bar{\vs}_{\mathrm{ar}}\left(\Js_{\text {wheel }}\right)=-\bar{\vs}_{\mathrm{ar}}\left(\Js_{\text {wheel }}\right)=-\left(\rightarrow \mathrm{v}_0\right)=\left(\leftarrow \mathrm{v}_0\right) . }[/math] Calculation of the friction power: [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ws}^\text{friction}=\dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{\text{friction}\rightarrow \text{wheel}}+ \dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{\text{friction}\rightarrow \text{belt}} }[/math], where R may be any reference frame. To quickly calculate this power, it is advisable to choose a reference frame R where one of the two points subjected to the action-reaction pair has zero speed, so that one of the two terms is directly zero: [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ws}^\text{friction}=\dot{\Ws}_\text{belt}^{\text{fric}\rightarrow \text{wheel}}+ \dot{\Ws}_\text{belt}^{\text{fric }\rightarrow \text{belt}}=\overline{\Fs}^{\text{fric}\rightarrow \text{wheel}} \cdot \bar{\vs}_{\text {belt}}\left(\Js_{\text {wheel }}\right)=(\rightarrow \mu\ms\gs)\cdot(\leftarrow \vs_0)=-\mu\ms\gs\vs_0. }[/math] If the calculation is done in any other reference frame, the result is the same: [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ws}^\text{friction}=\dot{\Ws}_\text{E}^{\text{fric}\rightarrow \text{wheel}}+ \dot{\Ws}_\text{E}^{\text{fric} \rightarrow \text{belt}}=(\rightarrow \mu\ms\gs)\cdot 0 + (\leftarrow \mu\ms\gs)\cdot(\rightarrow \vs_0)=-\mu\ms\gs\vs_0. }[/math] [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ws}^\text{friction}=\dot{\Ws}_\text{vehicle}^{\text{fric}\rightarrow \text{wheel}}+ \dot{\Ws}_\text{vehicle}^{\text{fric} \rightarrow \text{belt}}=(\rightarrow \mu\ms\gs)\cdot (\rightarrow\vs_0) + (\leftarrow \mu\ms\gs) \cdot(\rightarrow 3\vs_0)=-\mu\ms\gs\vs_0. }[/math] However, if only the power of one of the two forces is calculated (for example, the friction on the wheel), the result depends on the reference frame and can have any sign: [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ws}_\text{belt}^{\text{fric }\rightarrow \text{wheel}}=(\rightarrow \mu\ms\gs)\cdot(\leftarrow \vs_0)=-\mu\ms\gs\vs_0 , }[/math] [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ws}_\text{E}^{\text{fric} \rightarrow \text{wheel}}=(\rightarrow \mu\ms\gs)\cdot 0 = 0 , }[/math] [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ws}_\text{vehicle}^{\text{fric} \rightarrow \text{wheel}}=(\rightarrow \mu\ms\gs)\cdot (\rightarrow\vs_0)=\mu\ms\gs\vs_0. }[/math]
E1.3 Power of a system of forces on a rigid body
[math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{\rightarrow \Ss} =\left(\sum_\Ps\overline{\Fs}^{\rightarrow \Ps} \right)\cdot \vel{O}{R} + \sum_\Ps\overline{\Fs}^{\rightarrow \Ps} \cdot \left(\velang{S}{R} \times \OPvec \right) = \left( \sum_\Ps\overline{\Fs}^{\rightarrow \Ps} \right) \cdot \vel{O}{R} + \left[ \sum_\Ps \left( \OPvec \times \overline{\Fs}^{\rightarrow \Ps} \right)\right] \cdot \velang{S}{R} = \overline{\Fs}\cdot \vel{O}{R} + \overline{\Ms}(\Os)\cdot \velang{S}{R} }[/math] This calculation also shows that the power of a moment (or a torque [math]\displaystyle{ \Gamma }[/math]) on a rigid body in a reference frame R is the product of the moment by the angular velocity of the rigid body: [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{\Gamma\rightarrow \mathrm{S}} = \overline{\Gamma} \cdot \velang{S}{R} }[/math]. The power balance for a rigid body is: [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{ \rightarrow \mathrm{S}} = \dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{ \mathrm{ext}} + \dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{ \mathrm{ar}}. }[/math] ✏️ EXAMPLE E1-3.1: roller sliding on a slope
✏️ EXAMPLE E1-3.2: block sliding on a truck
[math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\vs}_\Ts(\mathrm{bloque})=-\mu\gs\quad \Rightarrow \quad \dot{\Ts}_\Ts^\mathrm{bloque}=-\mu\ms\gs(\vs+\vs'). }[/math]
✏️ EJEMPLO E1-3.3: camión frenando con carga
La fuerza tangencial de enlace se puede calcular a partir del TMC aplicado al centro C de la rueda. Como no tiene masa: [math]\displaystyle{ \sum\overline{\Ms}_\mathrm{ext}(\Cs)=\overline{0} \quad \Rightarrow \quad (\odot \Gamma)+(\otimes \Ts\rs)=0\quad \Rightarrow \quad \Ts=\Gamma/\rs. }[/math]
E1.4 Balance de potencias para un sistema multisólido: cálculo directo y cálculo indirectoEl cálculo directo (a partir de su definición) de la potencia asociada a una interacción (una fuerza sobre un punto P o un momento sobre un sólido rígido S) exige el conocimiento de la interacción (fuerza o momento): [math]\displaystyle{ \dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{\Fs\rightarrow \Ps}=\overline{\Fs}_{\rightarrow\Ps} \cdot \vel{P}{R} \quad , \quad \dot{\Ws}_\Rs^{\Ms\rightarrow \Ss}=\overline{\Ms}_{\rightarrow\Ss} \cdot \velang{S}{R} }[/math] Cuando no se trata de una interacción formulable, hay que recurrir a los teoremas vectoriales para determinarla. El cálculo indirecto es una alternativa que no necesita recurrir a estos teoremas. Se basa en la evaluación de un balance de potencias para un sistema y una referencia adecuados de manera que la potencia a determinar sea el único término desconocido de la ecuación (el único que no se puede calcular de manera directa). Cuando el balance incluye más de un término desconocido, se pueden combinar varios balances (para distintos sistemas y referencias) hasta tener un número suficiente de ecuaciones que permitan la determinación de todas las potencias desconocidas. ✏️ EJEMPLO E1-4.1: polea frenada
✏️ EJEMPLO E1-4.2: mono y plátanos
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